Water is the lifeblood of Pakistan’s agriculture-based economy. With nearly 90% of the country’s freshwater resources devoted to irrigation, agriculture depends heavily on water availability for crop production. Pakistan boasts the world’s largest contiguous irrigation system—the Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS)—yet it suffers from one of the lowest irrigation efficiencies globally. Current water use efficiency in Pakistan’s irrigation sector is estimated at only 30–40%, compared to a global benchmark of 70–80% in well-managed systems.

This inefficiency is not merely a technical flaw but a multidimensional crisis encompassing engineering, governance, socio-economic behavior, and climate change vulnerabilities. Rapid population growth, urbanization, and industrial expansion have further intensified competition for scarce water resources. Simultaneously, climate variability and glacial melt threaten the reliability of surface water supplies.

If Pakistan is to meet its food security goals, adapt to climate change, and move toward water sustainability, improving irrigation efficiency must become a national priority. This column explores why irrigation efficiency remains low in Pakistan, the impacts of inefficiency, possible solutions, and the strategic pathways for reforming water management and policy.

2. Current Status of Irrigation in Pakistan

2.1 The Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS)

Pakistan’s irrigation system is one of the largest in the world. The IBIS covers approximately 16 million hectares of cultivated land, with water sourced from the Indus River and its tributaries. Key components include:

• 3 major reservoirs: Tarbela, Mangla, and Chashma
• 19 barrages and headworks
• 12 inter-river link canals
• Over 45 main canals
• Thousands of distributaries and watercourses

This vast network delivers irrigation water to over 90% of agricultural land, enabling Pakistan to cultivate water-intensive crops such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, and cotton.

2.2 Water Availability and Use

• Annual renewable water resources: ~190 billion cubic meters (BCM), but highly variable due to seasonal and climatic factors.
• Agriculture’s share: ~93% of total withdrawals.
• Per capita availability: Declined from 5,260 m³ in 1951 to less than 1,000 m³ today, making Pakistan a “water-scarce” country under international definitions.

2.3 Crop Water Requirements

Pakistan’s cropping pattern is dominated by high-water-demand crops:

• Sugarcane – requires 1,500–2,500 mm water per season
• Rice – requires 1,200–1,800 mm per season
• Cotton – requires 700–1,200 mm
• Wheat – requires 400–600 mm

The mismatch between crop choice and water availability is one of the critical drivers of irrigation inefficiency.

3. Why Irrigation Efficiency is Low in Pakistan

Despite such a massive irrigation network, water productivity (kg of crop per cubic meter of water) remains among the lowest in the world. Several factors contribute to this inefficiency:

3.1 Conveyance Losses

• Earthen canals and watercourses account for 30–40% losses due to seepage, evaporation, and theft.
• Water delivery from the reservoir to the farm gate often loses nearly half of the allocated volume.
• Lining projects have been attempted, but coverage is limited, and maintenance is inconsistent.

3.2 Poor On-Farm Water Management

• Traditional flood irrigation is widely practiced, leading to excessive application.
• Lack of proper field leveling results in uneven water distribution, causing both waterlogging and drought patches within the same field.
• Farmers often rely on fixed irrigation rotations (“warabandi”) rather than crop water requirements, leading to under- or over-irrigation.

3.3 Institutional Weaknesses

• Water user associations are weak and ineffective.
• Irrigation departments are underfunded and struggle with operation and maintenance (O&M).
• Lack of coordination between irrigation and agricultural extension services hinders integrated water management.

3.4 Lack of Pricing and Incentives

• Irrigation water is either free or charged at nominal rates (abiana), which does not reflect its scarcity.
• Subsidies encourage the cultivation of water-thirsty crops like rice and sugarcane.
• Absence of volumetric pricing discourages water-saving behavior.

3.5 Groundwater Overexploitation

• Farmers rely heavily on private tube wells, extracting more than 60 BCM annually.
• Unregulated pumping has caused groundwater tables to decline in many areas, while poor quality (salinity, arsenic) threatens long-term sustainability.

3.6 Socio-Economic Factors

• Small landholdings (average < 5 ha) hinder the adoption of advanced irrigation technologies.
• Lack of awareness and technical training among farmers reduces willingness to adopt efficient practices.
• Poverty and risk-aversion push farmers toward short-term survival strategies rather than long-term efficiency gains.

4. Impacts of Low Irrigation Efficiency

The consequences of inefficient irrigation extend beyond wasted water.

4.1 Agricultural Productivity Loss

• Pakistan’s water productivity is around 0.3–0.5 kg/m³, compared to 1.0–1.5 kg/m³ in advanced agricultural economies.
• Inefficient water use limits crop yields, contributing to food insecurity.

4.2 Waterlogging and Salinity

• Over-irrigation has caused over 4 million hectares of land to suffer from waterlogging and salinity.
• Salinity reduces soil fertility, forcing farmers to abandon land or shift to low-value crops.

4.3 Groundwater Depletion

• Indiscriminate pumping has created localized water scarcity, especially in Punjab and Balochistan.
• Falling water tables increase energy costs for pumping, burdening farmers further.

4.4 Environmental Degradation

• Reduced river flows threaten wetlands and biodiversity.
• Overuse of groundwater accelerates land subsidence and ecosystem degradation.

4.5 Climate Vulnerability

• Inefficient irrigation reduces the resilience of Pakistan’s agriculture to climate-induced droughts and floods.

5. Strategies to Improve Irrigation Efficiency

Improving irrigation efficiency requires a multi-pronged approach combining technical, agronomic, institutional, and policy measures.

5.1 Technical Solutions

• Canal Lining – Reduces seepage losses in distributaries and minors.
• Laser Land Leveling – Ensures uniform application, reduces runoff, saves 20–30% water.
• Pressurized Irrigation Systems – Drip and sprinkler systems can save up to 50–70% water and increase yields.
• Smart Irrigation Tools – Sensors, remote sensing, and IoT applications can guide irrigation scheduling.

5.2 Agronomic Practices

• Crop Zoning – Restricting rice and sugarcane cultivation to water-abundant areas.
• Deficit Irrigation – Applying controlled water stress to improve efficiency without yield loss.
• Mulching and Conservation Tillage – Reduce evaporation losses.
• Improved Varieties – Promoting drought-resistant and water-efficient crop cultivars.

5.3 Governance and Institutional Measures

• Strengthening water user associations (WUAs) to manage distributaries and watercourses.
• Establishing farmer-led irrigation committees to ensure accountability.
• Improving O&M budgets for irrigation departments.

5.4 Water Pricing and Incentives

• Introducing volumetric water pricing to encourage efficient use.
• Linking subsidies to the adoption of efficient irrigation technologies.
• Offering credit and financial support for small farmers to adopt drip/sprinkler systems.

5.5 Groundwater Regulation

• Enforcing licensing and metering of tube wells.
• Promoting conjunctive use of surface and groundwater.
• Encouraging groundwater recharge through check dams and recharge wells.

6. Barriers to Adoption of Efficient Practices

Despite available technologies, adoption remains low due to:

• High initial costs of drip/sprinkler systems.
• Fragmented landholdings limiting economies of scale.
• Lack of awareness and technical support.
• Social resistance to changes in traditional irrigation practices.
• Weak extension services.

7. Policy and Institutional Reforms

To overcome inefficiencies, Pakistan needs comprehensive reforms:

1. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) – Aligning water, agriculture, and energy policies.
2. Water Rights and Allocation – Transparent water entitlements and equitable distribution.
3. Investment in Research and Development – Developing locally adapted irrigation technologies.
4. Capacity Building – Training farmers and extension agents in modern irrigation practices.
5. Digital Advisory Platforms – Smartphone-based irrigation scheduling apps (like GIAA, WISRFR-type models) to provide real-time guidance.

8. Future Pathways for Pakistan

Pakistan can leapfrog toward sustainable irrigation efficiency by:

• Embracing precision agriculture with drones, sensors, and AI-driven irrigation advice.
• Developing climate-smart agriculture practices to cope with variability.
• Promoting public-private partnerships for irrigation technology dissemination.
• Leveraging NDPAAS and similar platforms for free farmer advisory.

9. Conclusion

Pakistan faces a critical challenge of balancing limited water resources with growing food demand. Low irrigation efficiency not only wastes water but undermines food security, damages soils, and exacerbates climate risks. Improving irrigation efficiency requires coordinated efforts across technology, governance, policy, and farmer behavior.

If Pakistan can move from the current 30–40% efficiency to even 50–60%, it could save 20–30 BCM of water annually—enough to meet the needs of millions, recharge groundwater, and secure agricultural sustainability.

The path forward is clear: adopt modern irrigation technologies, reform policies, and empower farmers through knowledge and incentives. Without decisive action, Pakistan’s water crisis will deepen; with the right reforms, however, irrigation efficiency could become the cornerstone of sustainable agriculture and national resilience.